Losartan potassium and hydrochlorothiazide are often combined in pharmaceutical formulations for the treatment of hypertension. Therefore, the determination of these compounds in a single run is highly desirable for rapid quality control applications. The present study describes an ultra-fast (ca. 85 injections h-1) and environmentally friendly method based on capillary electrophoresis (CE) with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection for simultaneous quantification of potassium, losartan and hydrochlorothiazide. Cation (potassium) and anions (losartan and hydrochlorothiazide) were analyzed in a single run using a background electrolyte composed by 10.0 mmol L-1 boric acid (pH = 9.0, adjusted with sodium hydroxide). The limits of detection were 4.0, 3.0 and 10.0 μmol L-1 for potassium, losartan and hydrochlorothiazide, respectively. The proposed method is simple, fast, with minimal waste generation, and accurate (recovery values between 98 and 102%). The results obtained with the CE method were statistically similar (95% confidence level) to those obtained by high-performance liquid chromatography (losartan and hydrochlorothiazide) and flame photometry (potassium).

This work presents a simple electrochemical method for 2-naphthylamine (2NAP) determination in perfume by differential-pulse voltammetry (DPV) employing a boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode cathodically treated. Simple dilution of sample in supporting electrolyte was performed before electrochemical analysis. A borate buffer solution of pH 10.0 containing 20% (v/ (LOD) of 0.0046 µmol L-1 with a linear range between 0.5 and 90 µmol L-1, and RSD < 2.9%, respectively. Recovery values for spiked samples with 2NAP were between 102 and 104%. The proposed method is feasible to be applied for 2NAP detection and quantification on perfume samples with simple sample preparation.

This paper presents a simple and low-cost capillary electrophoresis method for ultra-fast simultaneous determination of naphazoline (NPZ) and one of the following active ingredients: diphenhydramine (DIP), pheniramine (PHEN) or chlorpheniramine (CPHEN). The proposed method is based on capillary electrophoresis with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (CE-C4D) equipped with a short length capillary column (10 cm). One sample can be analyzed every 35 s (ca. 100 injections per hour) with resolutions between peaks greater than 1.4. The optimized background electrolyte (BGE) was composed by 20 mmol L-1 histidine and 10 mmol L-1 3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid (pH = 9.5, adjusted with NaOH). Limits of detection were 25 µmol L-1 for NPZ, DIP, and PHEN and 13 µmol L-1 for CPHEN. The results obtained with the developed procedure were compared to those obtained by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and no statistically significant differences were observed (95% confidence level).

Formaldehyde is a carcinogenic compound that was employed as fungicide in the past. Despite its disuse, some foods such as mushrooms naturally produce formaldehyde, showing the importance of its determination. In this work, a mechanized flow system based on solenoid valves is proposed for spectrophotometric formaldehyde determination in mushrooms. The analyte was extracted from fresh and dried mushrooms samples by steam distillation with deionized water in the presence of phosphoric acid. The determination was based on the reaction between formaldehyde and acetylacetone in presence of ammonium acetate (Hantzsch reaction), leading to the formation of 3,5-diacetyl-1,4-dihydrolutidine (DDL, λmax = 412 nm). Linear response from 0.2 to 7.0 mg L-1 was achieved, with detection limit estimated at 0.02 mg L-1 (99.7% confidence level). Coefficient of variation and sample throughput were 1.1% (n = 15) and 17 h-1, respectively. Per determination, 11 mg of acetylacetone and 30 mg of ammonium acetate were consumed, generating 4.2 mL of waste. The procedure was applied to formaldehyde determination in fresh and dried shiitake, and fresh shimeji, and the results agreed with those attained by reference method at the 95% confidence level.

This work demonstrates the application of batch-injection analysis (BIA) with amperometric detection on a multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) modified electrode for the sensitive determination of the antioxidant pyrogallol in biodiesel. Samples were diluted in electrolyte (0.1 mol L-1 HClO4) before injection using an electronic micropipette on the BIA cell. The size effect of MWCNTs on electrochemical oxidation of pyrogallol was investigated and 3.5-fold increase in the amperometric sensitivity using the modified electrode with MWCNTs of shorter dimensions was obtained. This result was in agreement with cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements. After optimization of BIA parameters for the amperometric detection on the MWCNT-modified electrode, the proposed method presented a linear range from 0.3 to 1000 µmol L-1, detection limit of 0.013 µmol L-1, precision of 3%, and sample throughput of 240 h-1. Spiked biodiesel samples were analyzed and recovery values between 95-99% were obtained.

In this paper, we present a simple and low-cost capillary electrophoresis method for ultra-fast determination of active ingredients present in three different pharmaceutical formulations: (i) scopolamine (SCO) and dipyrone (DIP); (ii) orphenadrine (ORP), caffeine (CAF) and DIP; (iii) mepyramine (MEP), CAF, DIP, and ascorbic acid (AA). The proposed method is based on capillary electrophoresis with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (CE-C4D). The samples can be analyzed in a single run (< 1 minute) using 10 mmol L-1 3,4-dimethoxycinnamate (DMX) and 12 mmol L-1 triethanolamine (TEA) as a background electrolyte (pH = 8.5). A linear working range (r > 0.993) was obtained from 0.10 to 0.50 mmol L-1 for SCO, from 0.25 to 1.25 mmol L-1 for ORP and MEP, from 0.50 to 2.50 mmol L-1 for DIP and CAF, and from 1.00 to 3.00 mmol L-1 for AA. The limits of detection were 0.02, 0.05, 0.03, 0.04, 0.02, and 0.06 mmol L-1 for SCO, DIP, ORP, CAF, MEP, and AA, respectively. In addition, the proposed method also provided adequate intra (< 4%) and inter-day (< 14%) precision values, as well as satisfactory recovery values for spiked pharmaceutical samples (from 92% to 103%).

Este trabalho reporta a determinação simultânea de paracetamol e naproxeno usando a detecção amperométrica de múltiplos pulsos em um eletrodo impresso modificado com nanotubos de carbono de parades múltiplas (MWCNT-SPE) adaptado em uma célula de análise em fluxo (FIA) construída em laboratório. Uma sequência de dois pulsos de potencial (+0,30 e 0,70 V por 70 ms cada) foi aplicada continuamente de tal forma que paracetamol foi selectivamente oxidado em +0,30 V e ambos compostos (paracetamol e naproxeno) são oxidados em +0,70 V. Subtração da corrente depois de usar um fator de correção foi empregada para a determinação de naproxeno sem a interferência do paracetamol. O método FIA proposto apresenta alta seletividade e sensibilidade, exatidão adequada (resultados em concordância com cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência), elevada frequência analítica (90 h-1) e baixo custo uma vez que um único SPE pode ser usado durante todo o dia de trabalho adaptado em uma célula em fluxo.

This work reports the simultaneous determination of paracetamol and naproxen using multiple-pulse amperometric detection on a multi-walled carbon nanotube modified screen-printed electrode (MWCNT-SPE) adapted in a homemade flow-injection analysis (FIA) cell. A sequence of two potential pulses (+0.30 and +0.70 V for 70 ms each) was applied continuously in such a way that paracetamol is selectively oxidized at +0.30 V and both compounds (paracetamol and naproxen) are oxidized at +0.70 V. Current subtraction after using a correction factor was employed for determination of naproxen without the interference of paracetamol. The proposed FIA method presents high selectivity and sensitivity, adequate accuracy (results in agreement with high-performance liquid chromatography), elevated analytical frequency (90 h-1), and low-cost once a single SPE strip can be used during the whole working day adapted in a flow-cell.

A oxidação electroquímica de clorexidina é investigada pela primeira vez e sua determinação amperométrica usando um sistema de análise por injeção em fluxo (FIA) é demonstrada. Um pico de oxidação bem definido foi observado próximo de 1,3 V em uma solução 0,1 mol L-1 de HClO4 em eletrodo de carbono vítreo. O mecanismo da oxidação eletroquímica de clorexidina é dependente do pH e envolve a transferência de um único elétron, possivelmente através da formação de cátion radical. Os parâmetros do sistema FIA foram otimizados e um limite de detecção de 0,3 µmol L-1 foi obtido. O método proposto foi aplicado em enxaguantes bucais e desinfetantes de pele e comparados com cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência.

The electrochemical oxidation of chlorhexidine is investigated for the first time and its amperometric determination using a flow-injection analysis (FIA) system is demonstrated. An oxidation peak was observed at around 1.3 V in a 0.1 mol L-1 HClO4 solution at a glassy-carbon electrode. The mechanism of the electrochemical oxidation of chlorhexidine is pH-dependent and involves a single-electron transfer possibly via radical cation formation. The FIA parameters were optimized and a detection limit of 0.3 µmol L-1 was obtained. The proposed method was applied in mouth rinses and skin disinfectants samples and compared with high-performance liquid chromatography.

This work describes a simple and inexpensive flow injection analysis system in which gravity force provides fluid propulsion while needles for insulin administration or metallic wires act as electrodes for amperometric detection. The proposed system was able to demonstrate the influence of several operational parameters on the transient signals. Moreover, this system was successfully used to evaluate both the stoichiometry of Cu2+-EDTA complex and the effect of pH on the kinetics of the reaction between ferricyanide and ascorbic acid. Therefore, the proposed system can be regarded as an efficient and accessible didactic tool for the teaching of FIA principles.

Um método eletroanalítico original e rápido para a determinação de naproxeno em formulações farmacêuticas usando análise por injeção em batelada (BIA) com detecção amperométrica pulsada é descrito. Eletrodo de carbono vítreo foi usado como eletrodo de trabalho e solução tampão fosfato 0,05 mol L-1 como eletrólito suporte. O método amperométrico envolveu a aplicação contínua de dois pulsos de potencial ao eletrodo de trabalho com intuito de detectar naproxeno pela sua oxidação eletroquímica (+1,5 V por 200 ms) e de limpar a superfície do eletrodo de produtos de adsorção (+1,0 V por 100 ms), evitando contaminação do eletrodo. O método proposto possui várias vantagens para análises de rotina, incluindo: baixo desvio padrão relativo (3,0%, n = 10), elevada frequência analítica (90 h-1), exatidão satisfatória (baseado em determinações comparativas por espectrofluorimetria) e baixo limite de detecção (0,3 µmol L-1).

A novel and fast electroanalytical method for naproxen determination in pharmaceutical formulations using batch injection analysis (BIA) with pulsed amperometric detection is described. Bare glassy carbon electrode was used as working electrode and 0.05 mol L-1 phosphate buffer solution as supporting electrolyte. The amperometric method involved the continuous application of two sequential potential pulses to the working electrode in order to detect naproxen by its electrochemical oxidation (+1.5 V for 200 ms) and to clean the electrode surface from adsorption products (+1.0 V for 100 ms), avoiding electrode contamination. The proposed method has several advantages for routine analysis, including: a low relative standard deviation between injections (3.0%, n = 10), high analytical frequency (90 h-1), satisfactory accuracy (based on comparative determinations by spectrofluorimetry) and low limit of detection (0.3 µmol L-1).

A simple flow system with multiple pulse amperometric detection using a single working electrode is proposed for simultaneous determination of ascorbic (AA) and acetylsalicylic (AAS) acids in pharmaceutical formulations. The procedure is based on application of two potential pulses: 0.90 V/50 ms: oxidation and determination of AA without the interference of AAS; 1.35 V/50 ms: oxidation of both compounds and quantification of AAS by current subtraction using a correction factor. Sampling rate was estimated as 125 injections per hour and the limits of detection were 0.17 and 0.16 µmol L-1 for AA and AAS, respectively. Results for commercial samples agreed with those obtained using HPLC.

Neste trabalho, o desenvolvimento de um método limpo de preparo de amostras para a análise de fertilizantes inorgânicos baseado em extração assistida por ultrassom usando um banho de ultrassom é descrito. Amostras (70 mg) foram sonicadas por 5 min na presença de 2 mL de HNO3 50% (v/v) dentro de tubos de vidro. A determinação de cobre, chumbo e cádmio nos extratos foi realizada empregando espectrometria de absorção atômica com chama (FAAS). É também demonstrada a possibilidade de empregar um agitador vortex como fonte de agitação mecânica para realizar a extração dos metais. O método proposto usando banho de ultrassom ou agitador vortex é simples, versátil e minimiza a geração de resíduos devido ao emprego de volumes reduzidos de ácido e amostra, contribuindo para o desenvolvimento de um método analítico limpo.

In this work, the development of a "green" sample preparation procedure for the analysis of inorganic fertilizers based on ultrasound-assisted extraction using an ultrasonic bath is described. Samples (70 mg) were sonicated for 5 min in the presence of 2 mL of 50% (v/v) HNO3 inside glass tubes. The determination of copper, lead and cadmium in the extracts were carried out by flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS). It is also demonstrated the possibility of using of a vortex shaker as a mechanical agitation source to perform the metal extraction. The proposed extraction procedure using an ultrasonic bath or a vortex shaker is simple and versatile, and minimizes waste generation due to the employment of reduced volumes of acid and sample, contributing for the development of a clean analytical method.

Este trabalho descreve a construção e caracterização de uma célula eletroquímica microfluídica com a inserção dos três eletrodos (trabalho, pseudo-referência e auxiliar) em microcanais com espessuras menores que 20 µm. Os microcanais foram construídos entre duas bases de policarbonato com o uso de uma ou mais máscaras de toner sobrepostas como espaçador. Esta estratégia permite a construção de microcélulas com um volume interno sobre o eletrodo de trabalho entre 0,6 a 2,4 µL. Três diferentes materiais foram otimizados como eletrodos nas microcélulas: filmes de ouro ou compósito de grafite como eletrodo de trabalho, compósito de prata como pseudo-referência e compósito de grafite como eletrodo auxiliar. O desempenho das células microfluídicas foi avaliado usando as técnicas de voltametria cíclica, redissolução potenciométrica a corrente constante e voltametria de redissolução anódica por onda quadrada empregando ferrocianeto e alguns metais pesados (Cu2+, Hg2+, Pb2+, e Cd2+) como analitos modelo.

This work describes the construction and characterization of an electrochemical flow-through microcell with the three electrodes (working, pseudo-reference, and auxiliary) inserted in microchannels with thickness smaller than 20 µm. These microchannels were constructed between two stacked polycarbonate slides using one or more overlapped toner masks as spacer. This strategy allows the construction of microcells with a variable internal volume on the working electrode (0.6 to 2.4 µL). Three different materials were optimized as electrodes: gold film or graphite-epoxy composite as working electrode, silver-epoxy composite as pseudo-reference electrode and, graphite-epoxy composite as auxiliary electrode. The performance of the microfluidic cell was characterized by cyclic voltammetry, potentiometric stripping analysis at constant current, and square wave anodic stripping voltammetry using ferrocyanide and heavy metals (Cu2+, Hg2+, Pb2+, and Cd2+) as model analytes.

Este trabalho descreve uma metodologia simples empregando análise por injeção em fluxo com detecção amperométrica pulsada para determinação simultânea de dipirona (DI) e paracetamol (PCT) em formulações farmacêuticas. Os compostos são detectados através da aplicação de quatro pulsos de potencial (seqüenciais) em função do tempo. Dipirona é diretamente detectada em +0,40 V e paracetamol indiretamente em 0,00 V através da redução do produto de oxidação (N-acetil-p-benzoquinonaimina) gerada eletroquimicamente em +0,65 V. O quarto pulso de potencial (-0,05 V) é aplicado para a regeneração ou limpeza do eletrodo de trabalho (carbono vítreo). A faixa linear de resposta foi otimizada em 9 a 45 mg L-1 para dipirona e em 6 a 30 mg L-1 para paracetamol. As regressões lineares para as duas curvas analíticas apresentaram excelentes coeficientes de correlação (R = 0,999), assim como os resultados obtidos nos estudos de adição-recuperação (ca. 100%). A freqüência analítica para a metodologia proposta foi calculada em 45 injeções hora com o consumo de 1,5 mL de solução por minuto. O desvio padrão relativo do sinal para 24 injeções sucessivas foi calculado em 0,4 % para dipirona e 0,2 % para paracetamol. O método proposto foi usado com sucesso para a determinação destes compostos em formulações farmacêuticas.

In this work a simple flow injection methodology with pulsed amperometric detection for simultaneous determination of dipyrone (DI) and paracetamol (PCT) in pharmaceutical formulations is described. The compounds are detected by applying four sequential potential pulses as function of the time. Dipyrone is directly detected at +0.40 V and paracetamol indirectly at 0.00 V through the reduction of the oxidation product (N-acetyl-p-benzoquinoneimine) electrochemically generated at +0.65 V. The fourth potential pulse (-0.05 V) is applied for the cleaning of the electrode surface (glassy carbon). The linear response range was optimized between 9 and 45 mg L-1 for dipyrone and 6 and 30 mg L-1 for paracetamol. Linear regression of these two series of experiments leads to excellent correlation coefficients (R = 0.999) for both analytes and recoveries of around 100%. The proposed methodology allows an analytical frequency of 45 injections h-1 with a consumption of 1.5 mL of solution per minute. The relative standard deviation for 24 successive injections of solutions containing DI and PCT was calculated as 0.4% and 0.2%, respectively. The developed methodology was successfully used for the determination of dipyrone and paracetamol in pharmaceutical samples.

The present work describes a low-cost electrochemical "wall-jet" detector for flow analysis. The electrolytic solution enters into the cell through a tube of stainless steel (200 to 300 µm i.d), reaching to the center of the working electrode perpendicularly and then being mixed to the remaining solution in the cell, which flows under atmospheric pressure into a waste reservoir. The proposed electrochemical detector can be used with any type of working electrode, from commercial to home-made, such as glassy carbon and metallic electrodes (modified or unmodified), which enlarge the applications of the electrochemical detector.